In this blog post, we examine Isaiah Berlin’s biography of Marx and the reasons behind its enduring vitality.
Isaiah Berlin and the Two Concepts of Liberty
Isaiah Berlin is widely recognized as a leading political theorist and scholar of the history of ideas in the latter half of the 20th century. He gained widespread fame for his 1958 lecture, “Two Concepts of Liberty.” This essay is considered one of the most important texts in Anglo-American political philosophy, and in it, Berlin distinguished between negative liberty and positive liberty.
According to him, negative liberty refers to “freedom from external interference and coercion.” It signifies the right to choose or the right to self-determination, allowing one to freely pursue one’s desires in the absence of interference or coercion. In contrast, positive liberty refers to “the freedom to do,” meaning the freedom to develop and realize one’s potential and capabilities in order to pursue a meaningful life.
Berlin advocated for negative liberty, which recognizes diverse values, arguing that positive liberty risks becoming a form of domination over freedom by establishing a hierarchy of values. Underlying this perspective is a strong distrust and rejection of totalitarianism.
Given that Berlin is known as a leading liberal thinker of the Cold War era, it may seem surprising that his first published work was ‘Karl Marx: His Life and Environment’ (1939). Moreover, Berlin’s family had a history of fleeing to Britain to escape surveillance by Russian authorities following the Bolshevik Revolution, and Berlin himself served in British intelligence in the United States during World War II before establishing his reputation as a liberal. Given these circumstances, it would be easy to expect Berlin’s biography of Marx to be entirely negative and critical of Marx.
However, if that had been the case, it would have been difficult for this book to be published in five editions (up to the 2012 edition) since its first edition in 1939. The fact that a fifth edition was published in the 21st century, despite the numerous studies on Marx that have emerged in various countries since the first edition, demonstrates that this book possesses such enduring vitality that it is recognized as a classic among biographies. So where does this enduring vitality come from?
Berlin’s Biography of Marx — The Power of Objectivity and Context
As Terrell Carver mentions in the afterword to this book, the 1930s, when Berlin wrote this work, was an era when Engels’ writings were accepted as the orthodoxy of Marxism. At the time, figures such as Plekhanov, Kautsky, Lenin, Mao Zedong, and Trotsky tended to regard Engels’s works as the primary source of Marxism through historical materialism and dialectical materialism. In this context, Berlin rejected both the political frameworks of Marxism and anti-Marxism and refused to label Marx’s thought with the suffix “-ism.”
The Marx he presents is a new Marx, distinct from the one formalized by orthodox Marxism. Berlin neither deifies nor demonizes Marx. He neither idolizes him as a genius who single-handedly created an entirely new ideology, nor does he belittle him as a mediocre thinker who merely synthesized existing theories. He does not view him as a great prophet who accurately foretold the future of human history, nor as an agitator who created a destructive ideology out of anger toward the existing order.
Berlin rejects both excessive praise and excessive criticism of Marx and his theories, approaching them with as objective and fair a stance as possible. This very point is likely one of the key reasons why this book has maintained its vitality for so long.
From Berlin’s perspective, Marx did not seek to establish a vast philosophical system encompassing epistemology, ontology, or moral theory. Berlin argues that, since Marx did not engage in much philosophical analysis, the general principles of his epistemology, moral theory, and political theory can only be inferred by piecing together statements scattered across his various writings.
In his view, Marx’s greatest theoretical achievement lies in understanding human free will and moral ideals not as absolute standards, but within the constraints of material conditions centered on the economy. It is significant that he opened a new path to knowledge and established a lasting foundation for intellectual thought by presenting a new approach to viewing history and society that focuses on the relationship between economic relations and the lives of communities and individuals.
Even more significant is that Berlin views Marx as a thinker who, while staring squarely at the falsehoods, contradictions, and suffering of his era, sought to present their causes and solutions in a concrete yet comprehensive manner with a sharp, rigorous, and thorough attitude. Berlin portrays Marx as someone who strove to maintain a balance between reason and experience while carefully avoiding a drift toward eclecticism.
Furthermore, Berlin presents the process of Marx’s intellectual development within the intellectual context of his era. Thanks to this rich explanation of the intellectual background, upon finishing this biography, one feels as though one has not merely read a biography of Marx, but has also read a concise overview of 19th-century intellectual history. This, too, is likely one of the key sources of the book’s enduring vitality.
